Stunting predictors among children aged 0-24 months in Southeast Asia: a scoping review

Togatorop, Via Eliadora; Rahayuwati, Laili; Susanti, Raini Diah; Tan, Julianus Yudhistira

doi:10.1590/0034-7167-2022-0625

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Revista Brasileira de Enfermagem

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REVIEW • Rev. Bras. Enferm. 77 (2) • 2024 • https://doi.org/10.1590/0034-7167-2022-0625 copy

Stunting predictors among children aged 0-24 months in Southeast Asia: a scoping review

Preditores de nanismo entre crianças de 0 a 24 meses no Sudeste Asiático: Uma revisão do escopo

Indicadores de la desnutrición crónica entre niños de 0 a 24 meses en el Sudeste Asiático: Una revisión del alcance

Authorship SCIMAGO INSTITUTIONS RANKINGS

ABSTRACT

Objective:

To identify predictors of stunting among children 0-24 months in Southeast Asia.

Methods:

This scoping review focused on articles with observational study design in English published from 2012 to 2023 from five international databases. The primary keyword used were: “stunting” OR “growth disorder” AND “newborn” AND “predict” AND “Southeast Asia”.

Results:

Of the 27 articles selected for the final analysis there are thirteen predictors of stunting in seven Southeast Asia countries. The thirteen predictors include the child, mother, home, inadequate complementary feeding, inadequate breastfeeding, inadequate care, poor quality foods, food and water safety, infection, political economy, health and healthcare, water, sanitation, and environment, and social culture factor.

Conclusion:

All these predictors can lead to stunting in Southeast Asia. To prevent it, health service providers and other related sectors need to carry out health promotion and health prevention according to the predictors found.

Descriptors:
Children; Infant; Epidemiologic Factors; Southeast Asia; Stunting

Search	Descriptors	Results
MEDLINE/PubMed
#1	“Growth Disorders”[MeSH Terms] OR “stunting”[All Fields] OR “growth stunted”[All Fields] OR “growth disorder”[All Fields]	42,105
#2	“Infant”[MeSH Terms] OR “infant, newborn”[MeSH Terms] OR “Infant”[All Fields] OR “neonates”[All Fields] OR “newborn”[All Fields]	1,478,108
#3	“Epidemiologic Factors”[MeSH Terms] OR “epidemiologic factor”[All Fields] OR “determinants”[All Fields] OR “epidemiologic determinant”[All Fields] OR “Risk Factors”[MeSH Terms] OR “risk factor scores”[All Fields] OR “risk scores”[All Fields] OR “population at risk”[All Fields] OR “health correlates”[All Fields] OR “social risk factors”[All Fields] OR “predict^*”[All Fields]	3,702,932
#4	“asia, southeastern”[MeSH Terms] OR “Southeast Asia”[All Fields] OR “Southeastern Asia”[All Fields]	121,111
#5	#1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4	140
#6	#5 AND ((2012/1/1:2023/2/28[pdat]) AND (english[Filter]))	89
CINAHL Plus with Full Text via EBSCOhost
#1	MW “stunting” OR TX “growth disorders” OR TX “chronic malnutrition” OR TX “stunted, disorder” OR TX “stunting” OR MW “growth disorder”	6,484
#2	MW (“infant” or “newborn” or “neonate”) OR TX (“infant” or “newborn infant” or “newborn” or “neonates”)	404,466
#3	MW (“epidemiologic determinant” or “risk factor” or “population at risk”) OR TX (“epidemiologic factors” or “determinants” or “risk factors” or “social risk factors” or “predict^*” or “factors”)	2,254,678
#4	TX (“Vietnam” or “Timor-Leste” or “Laos” or “Philippines” or “Indonesia” or “Malaysia” or “Cambodia” or “Singapore” or “Thailand” or “Myanmar” or “Brunei”) OR TX (“Southeast asia” or “Southeastern asia”)	15,479
#5	#1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4	50
#6	#5 Limiters - Published Date: 20120101-20230231; English Language; Peer Reviewed	41
Web of Science
#1	(((((TS=(“stunting”)) OR TS=(“growth disorder”)) OR ALL=(“stunting”)) OR ALL=(“chronic malnutrition”)) OR ALL=(“disorder, stunted”)) OR ALL=(“stunted”)	15,028
#2	(((((((((TS=(“epidemiologic factor”)) OR ALL=(“predict^*”)) OR ALL=(“determinants”)) OR ALL=(“epidemiologic determinant”)) OR TS=(“risk factor”)) OR All=(“risk factor”)) OR ALL=(“social risk factor”)) OR ALL=(“risk scores”)) OR ALL=(“risk factor scores”)) OR ALL=(“population at risk”)	5,010,207
#3	((((TS=(“infant”)) OR TS=(“newborn infant”)) OR ALL=(“newborn”)) OR ALL=(“infant”) OR ALL=(“neonates”)) OR TS=(“neonate”)	434,720
#4	#1 AND #2 AND #3	397
#5	#4 AND English (Languages) AND INDONESIA OR CAMBODIA OR THAILAND OR PHILIPPINES OR MYANMAR OR MALAYSIA OR VIETNAM OR SINGAPORE (Countries/Regions)	31
Scopus
#1	TITLE-ABS-KEY (“stunting” OR “growth disorder”) OR ALL (“stunting” OR “growth disorder” OR “stunted, disorder” OR “chronic malnutrition”)	59,280
#2	TITLE-ABS-KEY (“infant” OR “newborn”) OR ALL (“infant” OR “newborn” OR “newborn infant” OR “neonates”)	3,018,229
#3	TITLE-ABS-KEY (“epidemiologic factor” OR “determinant, factor” OR “determinant” OR “risk factor”) OR ALL (“determinant factor” OR “epidemiologic factor” OR “predict^*” OR “determinant” OR “factor” OR “risk factor” OR “social risk factor” OR “risk scores” OR “risk factor scores”)	28,283,038
#4	TITLE-ABS-KEY (“Southeast Asian” OR “South-eastern Asia”) OR ALL (“Southeast Asia” OR “Southeast Asian” OR “Southeastern Asia” OR “South-eastern Asia”)	389,920
#5	#1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4	746
#6	#5 AND ( LIMIT-TO ( LANGUAGE , “english” ) ) AND ( LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2023 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2022 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2021 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2020 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2019 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2018 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2017 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2016 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2015 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2014 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2013 ) OR LIMIT-TO ( PUBYEAR , 2012 ) )	577
Cochrane Library
#1	(“stunting”):ti,ab,kw OR (“disorder, growth”) OR (“disorder, stunted”) OR (“chronic malnutrition”) OR (“stunting”)	1,342
#2	MeSH descriptor: [Growth Disorders] explode all trees	1,307
#3	(“infant”):ti,ab,kw OR (“newborn infant”):ti,ab,kw OR (“newborn”) OR (“infant”) OR (“neonates”)	88,412
#4	(neonates):ti,ab,kw	9,027
#5	MeSH descriptor: [Infant] explode all trees	39,686
#6	MeSH descriptor: [Infant, Newborn] explode all trees	20,292
#7	(“epidemiologic factors”):ti,ab,kw OR (“epidemiologic determinant”):ti,ab,kw OR (“prediction”) OR (“determinant”) OR (“risk factors”):ti,ab,kw	80,650
#8	(“social risk factor”) OR (“risk scores”) OR (“risk scores scores”) OR (“population at risk”)	2,090
#9	MeSH descriptor: [Epidemiologic Factors] explode all trees	58,374
#10	MeSH descriptor: [Risk Factors] explode all trees	32,696
#11	(“Southeast Asian”):ti,ab,kw OR (“Southeastern Asia”):ti,ab,kw OR (“Southeast Asia”)	663
#12	MeSH descriptor: [Asia, Southeastern] explode all trees	3,501
#13	(#1 or #2) AND (#3 or #4 or #5 or #6) AND (#7 or #8 or #9 or #10) AND (#11 or #12) with Publication Year from 2012 to 2023, with Cochrane Library publication date Between Jan 2012 and Feb 2023, in Trials	9

Authors /Year	Design	Sample/ Country	Study Objectives	Findings
Torlesse et al/ 2016(¹³13 Torlesse H, Cronin AA, Sebayang SK, Nandy R. Determinants of stunting in Indonesian children: evidence from a cross-sectional survey indicate a prominent role for the water, sanitation and hygiene sector in stunting reduction. BMC Public Health. 2016;16(1):669. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3339-8 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3339-... )	Cross-sectional	1,366 children aged 0-23 months/ Indonesia	To identify factors associated with stunting in children aged 0-23 months.	Age of child: 12-23 months (aOR 4.40)^{^*} Low household wealth (aOR 2.30)^{^} Male gender (aOR 1.45)^{^**}
Sari et al/2021(¹⁴14 Sari K, Sartika RAD. The effect of the physical factors of parents and children on stunting at birth among newborns in Indonesia. J Prev Med Public Health. 2021;54(5):309-16. http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120 http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120... )	Secondary data analysis	756 infants/ Indonesia	To determine the relationship between physical factors of parents and children with the incidence of stunting at birth	Stunting at birth Age of mother at first pregnancy^{^*}: 15-17 y (aOR 0.37), 18-19 y (aOR 0.37), 20-24 y (aOR 1.34), ≥25 y (aOR 0.80) Number of parities^{^}: one parity (aOR 2.31), two parities (aOR 2.04), three parities (aOR 1.70) Preterm birth (aOR 2.12)^{^} Parental height with mother <145 cm and father <161.9 cm (aOR 5.93)^{^} Age of parents: either parent 20-35 years (aOR 1.50), both parent <20 or >35 years (aOR 2.37)^{^**}
Hadi et al/2021(¹⁵15 Hadi H, Fatimatasari F, Irwanti W, Kusuma C, Alfiana RD, Asshiddiqi MIN. Exclusive breastfeeding protects young children from stunting in a low-income population: a study from eastern Indonesia. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4264. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264... )	Secondary data analysis	408 caregivers of children aged 6-24 months/ Indonesia	To examine the role of exclusive BF in reducing stunting prevalence among children <2 years old attributable to low HH in a low income Indonesian population	Male gender (aOR 1.51)⁺ + p value<0.1 Exclusive BF (aOR 0.82)⁺ + p value<0.1 Age of child: <12 months (aOR 0.20)⁺ + p value<0.1 Mother as caregiver (aOR 0.38)⁺ + p value<0.1 Maternal employment status: unemployed (aOR 8.40), labor/entrepreneur (aOR 4.52), farmer/breeder (aOR 11.74)⁺ + p value<0.1 Monthly HH expenditure: <USD 15 (aOR 1.03), USD 15 to <25 (aOR 2.00), USD 25 to <37 (aOR 2.28), USD 37 to <54 (aOR 1.20), >USD 54 (aOR 1)⁺ + p value<0.1
Gunardi et al/2018(¹⁶16 Gunardi H, Soedjatmiko S, Sekartini R, Medise BE, Darmawan AC, Armeilia R. Association between parental socio-demographic factors and declined linear growth of young children in Jakarta. Med J Indones. 2018;26(4):286-92. https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819 https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819... )	Cohort	160 children aged <24 months/ Indonesia	To identify parental socio-demographic risk factors of declined linear growth in children under 2 years.	Maternal education ≤9 years (RR 2.60)^{^} Working mother (RR 0.17)^{^}
Sartika et al/2021(¹⁷17 Sartika AN, Khoirunnisa M, Meiyetriani E, Ermayani E, Pramesthi IL, Nur Ananda AJ. Prenatal and postnatal determinants of stunting at age 0-11 months: a cross-sectional study in Indonesia. PLoS One. 2021;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254662 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.025... )	Cross-sectional	559 infants/ Indonesia	To determine important factors of childhood stunting with a focus on maternal and child nutrition, and pre-postnatal determinants	Adjusted with LBW LBW (aOR 4.119)^{^} Diarrhea (aOR 3.227)^{^} Preterm birth (aOR 5.10)^{^} Incomplete immunization (aOR 2.43)^{^*}
Titaley et al/2019(¹⁸18 Titaley CR, Ariawan I, Hapsari D, Muasyaroh A, Dibley MJ. Determinants of the stunting of children under two years old in Indonesia: a multilevel analysis of the 2013 Indonesia Basic Health Survey. Nutrients. 2019;11(5):1106. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051106 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051106... )	Secondary data analysis	24,657 children aged <24 months/ Indonesia	To examine the determinants of stunting in children aged <24 months using the 2013 Indonesia Basic Health Survey data	>3 HH members who aged under 5 years (aOR 1.33)^{^} 5-7 HH members (aOR 1.1)^{^} HH wealth: poorest (aOR 1.74)^{^} 1-3 times prenatal care visitation (aOR 1.22)^{^} Male gender (aOR 1.33)^{^*} Age of child: 12-23 months (aOR 1.89)^{^} LBW (aOR 2.55)^{^**}
Nurhayati et al/2020(¹⁹19 Nurhayati E, Paramashanti BA, Astiti D, Aji AS. Dietary diversity, vitamin D intake and childhood stunting: a case-control study in Bantul, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr. 2020;26(2):273-87. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021... )	Case-control	158 children aged 6-23 months/ Indonesia	To examine the relationship between dietary diversity and vitamin D intake with stunting in children aged 6-23 months	Age of child: 18-23 months (OR 3.80)^{^} BL ≥48 cm (OR 0.36)^{^} Poor micronutrient quality: vitamin D (OR 5.18)^{^} Dietary diversity with ≥4 food groups (OR 0.17)^{^}
Madinar et al/2021(²⁰20 Madinar M, Andina E, Achadi EL. Fulfilment of minimum acceptable diet (MAD), short birth length and family income level are associated with stunting in children aged 6-23 months in Central Jakarta. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(2):259-70. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045... )	Cross-sectional	231 children aged 6-23 months/ Indonesia	To determine the factors related to stunting among children aged 6-23 months.	MAD is not met (OR 3.29)^{^} Short BL (OR 0.471)^{^} Family income level (OR 0.387)^{^**}
Utami et al/2018(²¹21 Utami N, Rachmalina R, Irawati A, Sari K, Rosha BC, Amaliah N, et al. Short birth length, low birth weight and maternal short stature are dominant risks of stunting among children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Bogor longitudinal study on child growth and development, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24:11-23. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-1/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... )	Cohort	320 children aged <23 months/ Indonesia	To determine the major factors of stunting among children aged 0-23 months	BW <3000 gr (HR 1.847)^{^**} BL <48 cm (HR 1.567)^{^} Maternal height <150 cm (HR 1.436)^{^*}
Hanifah et al/2018(²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... )	Secondary data analysis	4,677 children aged 0-23 months in 2000, 2007, and 2014/ Indonesia	To determine the trend of stunting incidence and associated factors in 2000 and 2014	In 2000: Age of child^{^**} LBW^{^} Maternal education status^{^} Completeness of prenatal care^{^} Inadequate sanitation^{^**} Completeness of immunization^{^} In 2014: Age of child^{^*} BW^{^} Provision of prelacteal^{^} Ownership of Mother and Child Health Book/Card ^{^} Inadequate sanitation^{^*}
Diana et al/2021(²³23 Diana A, Haszard JJ, Sari SYI, Rahmannia S, Fathonah A, Sofiah WN. Determination of modifiable risk factors for length-for-age z-scores among resource-poor Indonesian infants. PLoS One. 2021;16(2):e0247247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247247 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024... )	Cohort	230 healthy full term, breastfed infants/ Indonesia	To identify factors influencing the linear growth children in rural setting	Stunting in children aged 6 to 12 months Maternal height (SMD 0.21)^{^*} Improved drinking water source (SMD -0.31)^{^}
Rohner et al/2013(²⁴24 Rohner F, Woodruff BA, Aaron GJ, Yakes EA, Lebanan MAO, Rayco-Solon P. Infant and young child feeding practices in urban Philippines and their associations with stunting, anemia, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2013;34(2 Suppl):17-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S104 https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S1... )	Cross-sectional	1,777 HH with children aged 6-23 months/ Philippines	To determine factor associated with the nutritional status of children aged 6-23 months living in urban areas of the Philippines.	HH with poorest socioeconomic status (aOR 4.8)^{^**} Using wood or coal as fuel for cooking (aOR 1.5)^{^} Age of child (aOR 1.08)^{^**} Not consuming daily or weekly multivitamin (aOR 1.5)^{^}
Maravilla et al/2020(²⁵25 Maravilla JC, Betts K, Adair L, Alati R. Stunting of children under two from repeated pregnancy among young mothers. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):14265. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106-7 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106... )	Cohort	1,033 singleton birth mothers aged 14-24 years/ Philippines	To measure the magnitude of the association between repeated pregnancy in adolescent mother and stunting incidence in children aged 12 and 24 months	Stunting in children aged 12 months Repeated pregnancy (aOR 1.40)^{^*} LBW (aOR 2.52)^{^} BF within 24 hours after delivery (aOR 1.42)^{^} BF until 12 months (aOR 0.34)^{^} Solid foods within 6-8 months of age (aOR 0.31)^{^}
Hinojosa et al/2021(²⁶26 Hinojosa AP V., Tandang NA, Domingo DGC. Relationship between maternal characteristics and stunting in children aged 0 to 23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(3). https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010... )	Secondary data analysis	5,254 children aged 0-23 months/ Philippines	To determine the relationship between maternal characteristics and nutritional status of children aged 0-23 months based on their length per height for age	College level maternal education (OR 0.39)^{^} BF for 1-6 mo (OR 0.58) and >1 year (OR 2.64)^{^*} Age-appropriate BF (OR 0.63)^{^} Third semester of pregnancy age: (OR 2.95)^{^*} Having tetanus toxoid vaccine at prenatal care (OR 0.67)^{^} Having ultrasound assessment at prenatal care (OR 0.71)^{^*}
Guirindola et al/2021(²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... )	Secondary data analysis	2,275 children aged 6-23 months/ Philippines	To identify the drivers of stunting in young Filipino children aged 6-23 months	Age of child: 12-23 months (RR 3.04)^{^} Male gender (RR 1.99)^{^} LBW (RR 2.19)^{^*} Age of mother: <20 years (RR 1.90)^{^} Maternal height <151 cm (RR 2.33)^{^*} Maternal education level is primary school and less (RR 1.59)^{^} Wealth status is poor (RR 1.69)^{^} Not given prelacteal (RR 0.67)^{^} MMF is not met (RR 1.82)^{^*}
Ulep et al/2022(²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... )	Secondary data analysis	1,881 children aged 6-23 months/ Philippines	To determine the magnitude of socioeconomic inequality in stunting among 6-23 months Filipino children and to decompose the inequality into maternal, health and nutrition and socio-demographic factors	Male gender (β=-0.11)^{^} Maternal height (β=-0.02)^{^} Divorced marital status (β=0.17)^{^} BMI^{^}: normal (β=-0.11), overweight (β=-0.16), obese (β=-0.20) MMF (β=-0.15)^{^} DDS (β=-0.02)^{^} High quality of prenatal care (β=-0.06)^{^} Iron supplementation in children (β=-0.06)^{^}
Blake et al/2016(²⁹29 Blake RA, Park S, Baltazar P, Ayaso EB, Monterde DBS, Acosta LP. LBW and SGA impact longitudinal growth and nutritional status of Filipino infants. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159461 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.015... )	Secondary data analysis	357 mother-infant pairs/ Philippines	To compare rates of stunting, wasting and underweight among infants with LBW, SGA, non-LBW, and non-SGA at one, six and 12 months of age	Male gender (OR 1.78)^{^} Gestational age (OR 0.69)^{^} LBW (OR 3.82)^{^} SGA (OR 2.98)^{^} Non-exclusive BF (OR 2.30)^{^} Maternal height at first semester of pregnancy (OR 0.95)^{^} Maternal weight at first semester of pregnancy (OR 0.97)^{^}
Kpewou et al/2020(³⁰30 Kpewou DE, Poirot E, Berger J, Som SV, Laillou A, Belayneh SN. Maternal mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy and linear growth among Cambodian infants during the first months of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951... )	Secondary data analysis	779 mothers-infant pairs/ Cambodia	To describe the effect of mother’s nutritional status during pregnancy on early child growth	MUAC at pregnancy <23 cm (OR 1.676)^{^} Maternal education level is secondary school and above (aOR 0.46)^{^} Male gender (aOR 1.57) ^{^} HH wealth index: richest (OR 0.41)^{^}
Laillou et al/2020(³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... )	Secondary data analysis	1,938 children aged 6-23.9 months/ Cambodia	To explore the factors that contribute to stunting and wasting in children	Percentage to predict stunting. Low wealth quintile (21.4-45.2%) Mother without formal education (12.2-30.6%) Low child feeding index score (15.4-22.3%) No access to vitamin A supplementation (5.4-15.8%) No birth certificate (2.5-14.1%) Access to non-improved sanitation facility (1.9-8.3%) Inadequate treatment of water (1.2-10.2%) Access to non-improved drinking water (5.3-11.3%)
Harvey et al/2022(³²32 Harvey CM, Newell M-L, Padmadas S. Maternal socioeconomic status and infant feeding practices underlying pathways to child stunting in Cambodia: structural path analysis using cross-sectional population data. BMJ Open. 2022;12(11):e055853. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055853 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055... )	Secondary data analysis	1,365 children aged 6-24 months/ Cambodia	To identify and investigate the complex pathways to stunting among children aged 6-24 months cioeconomic factors	Dietary diversity (β=1, direct effect)^{^} HH wealth (β=0.712; direct effect, β=0.275; indirect effect)^{^} BF (β=-0.948; direct effect)^{^} Maternal education (β=0.051; indirect effect)^{^} Maternal employment (high level of participation; β=0.414; indirect effect)^{^**}
Beal et al/2019(³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... )	Secondary data analysis	30,771 children aged 6-23 months/ Vietnam	To identify the stunting determinants among children aged 6-23 months.	Age of child, years (aRR 2.49)^{^*} Not consuming BF (aRR 1.44)^{^} Age-appropriate BF (aRR 0.65)^{^*} Male gender (aRR 1.35)^{^} Ethnic minority (aRR 1.31)^{^} LBW (aRR 1.75)^{^} Not given vitamin A in past 6 months (aRR 1.13)^{^} Maternal age <18 years (aRR 1.09)^{^} Maternal height ^{^*}:<145 cm (aRR 2.04), 145-149cm (aRR 1.62) Maternal BMI <18.5 (aRR 1.20)^{^} Maternal education^{^*}: no formal education (aRR 1.77), primary level (aRR 1.77), secondary level (aRR 1.57), high school level (aRR 1.38) Maternal employment: farmer (aRR 1.09)^{^} No perinatal iron or iron-folate tablet (aRR 1.15)^{^*} HH with more than 2 children (aRR 1.10)^{^} Not using iodized salt (aRR 1.11)^{^} Residence type^{^}: rural (aRR 1.14), poor commune (aRR 1.11)
Young et al/2018(³⁴34 Young MF, Nguyen PH, Gonzalez Casanova I, Addo OY, Tran LM, Nguyen S, et al. Role of maternal preconception nutrition on offspring growth and risk of stunting across the first 1000 days in Vietnam: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2018;13(8):e0203201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203201 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... )	Secondary data analysis	1.409 mothers with at least one ultrasound before 30 weeks/ Vietnam	To examine associations between preconception maternal nutritional status and linear growth children across the first 1000 days.	Adjusted with BMI <18 kg/m^2. Maternal height <150cm (aRR 2.10)^{^*} BMI at preconception (aRR 1.39)^{^} Age of child (aRR 0.86)^{^} Male gender (aRR 1.29)^{^} Maternal education level^{^**}: primary (aRR 2.30), secondary (aRR 2.30)
Mya et al/2019(³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... )	Secondary data analysis	1,222 last children living with their mother and aged 6-23 months/ Myanmar	To explore the relationship between IYCF practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months	Currently breastfed (aOR 0.51) ^{^} Female gender (aOR 0.46)^{^} Birth size below average (aOR 2.38)^{^} Maternal height^{^}: 150-159 cm (aOR 0.42), ≥160 cm (aOR 0.41) Working mother (aOR 1.97)^{^*} Rural residence (aOR 2.08)^{^}
Phu et al/2019(³⁶36 Phu KWW, Wittayasooporn J, Kongsaktrakul C. Influence of child feeding practices and selected basic conditioning factors on stunting in children between 6 and 24 months of age in Myanmar. Makara J Health Res. 2019;23(2). https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397 https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397... )	Cross-sectional	216 children aged 6-24 months/ Myanmar	To assess the influence of dependent care to stunting.	Feeding index^{^***}: low (OR 15.45), medium (OR 4.55)
Ahmad et al/2021(³⁷37 Ahmad N, Sutan R, Tamil AM, Hajib N. Growth patterns and nutritional status of small for gestational age infants in Malaysia during the first year of life. Child Health Nurs Res. 2021;27(4):317-27. https://doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2021.27.4.317 https://doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2021.27.4.3... )	Cohort	344 infants aged ≥3 months/ Malaysia	To identify the relationship between SGA and its effects on the growth patterns and nutritional status of infants.	Male gender (aOR 3.51 at one month; aOR 9.20 at six months; aOR 5.66 at 12 months)^{^**} BW <2500 gr (aOR 25.47 at one month; aOR 6.62 at six months)^{^}
Masroor et al/2014(³⁸38 Masroor N, Rahman J, TinMyo H, Khattak MAK, Aye A. Factors affecting nutritional status of children below 24 months in Pekan district, Pahang, Malaysia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Mar 15];20:197-207. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/20-2/e.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... )	Cross-sectional	910 children aged <24 months/ Malaysia	To assess the nutritional status of children aged 0-24 months	Residence^{^} Age of child^{^} Gender^{^} Number of HH members^{^} BW^{^**} Ethnic^{^} Income per capita^{^*}
Boylan et al/2017(³⁹39 Boylan S, Mihrshahi S, Louie JCY, Rangan A, Salleh HN, Ali HI. Prevalence and risk of moderate stunting among a sample of children aged 0-24 months in Brunei. Matern Child Health J. 2017;21(12):2256-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2348-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2348-... )	Cross-sectional	396 children aged <24 months/ Brunei Darussalam	To determine the prevalence and factors associated with stunting in children aged 0-24 months	Male gender (aOR 2.48)^{^**} Preterm birth (aOR 2.14)^{^} BW <2500 gr (aOR 2.99)^{^**}

Factors	Predictors
The Child	Small for gestational age^{^(29)} Birth weight^{^(17-18,21-22,25,27,29,33,37-39)} Gender^(13,15,18,27-³⁰30 Kpewou DE, Poirot E, Berger J, Som SV, Laillou A, Belayneh SN. Maternal mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy and linear growth among Cambodian infants during the first months of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951... ,³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... 34 Young MF, Nguyen PH, Gonzalez Casanova I, Addo OY, Tran LM, Nguyen S, et al. Role of maternal preconception nutrition on offspring growth and risk of stunting across the first 1000 days in Vietnam: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2018;13(8):e0203201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203201 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... -³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... ,³⁷37 Ahmad N, Sutan R, Tamil AM, Hajib N. Growth patterns and nutritional status of small for gestational age infants in Malaysia during the first year of life. Child Health Nurs Res. 2021;27(4):317-27. https://doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2021.27.4.317 https://doi.org/10.4094/chnr.2021.27.4.3... -39) Age^{^(13,15,18-19,22,24,27,33-34,38)} Birth length^*(19-²¹21 Utami N, Rachmalina R, Irawati A, Sari K, Rosha BC, Amaliah N, et al. Short birth length, low birth weight and maternal short stature are dominant risks of stunting among children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Bogor longitudinal study on child growth and development, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24:11-23. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-1/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... )
The Mother	Age at first pregnancy^{^(14)} Parity^{^(14,25)} Preterm birth(¹⁴14 Sari K, Sartika RAD. The effect of the physical factors of parents and children on stunting at birth among newborns in Indonesia. J Prev Med Public Health. 2021;54(5):309-16. http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120 http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120... ,¹⁷17 Sartika AN, Khoirunnisa M, Meiyetriani E, Ermayani E, Pramesthi IL, Nur Ananda AJ. Prenatal and postnatal determinants of stunting at age 0-11 months: a cross-sectional study in Indonesia. PLoS One. 2021;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254662 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.025... ,²⁹29 Blake RA, Park S, Baltazar P, Ayaso EB, Monterde DBS, Acosta LP. LBW and SGA impact longitudinal growth and nutritional status of Filipino infants. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159461 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.015... ,³⁹39 Boylan S, Mihrshahi S, Louie JCY, Rangan A, Salleh HN, Ali HI. Prevalence and risk of moderate stunting among a sample of children aged 0-24 months in Brunei. Matern Child Health J. 2017;21(12):2256-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2348-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-017-2348-... ) Short maternal stature(¹⁴14 Sari K, Sartika RAD. The effect of the physical factors of parents and children on stunting at birth among newborns in Indonesia. J Prev Med Public Health. 2021;54(5):309-16. http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120 http://doi.org/10.3961/jpmph.21.120... ,²¹21 Utami N, Rachmalina R, Irawati A, Sari K, Rosha BC, Amaliah N, et al. Short birth length, low birth weight and maternal short stature are dominant risks of stunting among children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Bogor longitudinal study on child growth and development, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24:11-23. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-1/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,²³23 Diana A, Haszard JJ, Sari SYI, Rahmannia S, Fathonah A, Sofiah WN. Determination of modifiable risk factors for length-for-age z-scores among resource-poor Indonesian infants. PLoS One. 2021;16(2):e0247247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247247 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024... ,²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... 28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... -²⁹29 Blake RA, Park S, Baltazar P, Ayaso EB, Monterde DBS, Acosta LP. LBW and SGA impact longitudinal growth and nutritional status of Filipino infants. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159461 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.015... ,³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... -35) Poor nutrition during preconception and pregnancy(²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... 29 Blake RA, Park S, Baltazar P, Ayaso EB, Monterde DBS, Acosta LP. LBW and SGA impact longitudinal growth and nutritional status of Filipino infants. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159461 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.015... -³⁰30 Kpewou DE, Poirot E, Berger J, Som SV, Laillou A, Belayneh SN. Maternal mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy and linear growth among Cambodian infants during the first months of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951... ,³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... ,³⁴34 Young MF, Nguyen PH, Gonzalez Casanova I, Addo OY, Tran LM, Nguyen S, et al. Role of maternal preconception nutrition on offspring growth and risk of stunting across the first 1000 days in Vietnam: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One. 2018;13(8):e0203201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0203201 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... ) Infection(²⁶26 Hinojosa AP V., Tandang NA, Domingo DGC. Relationship between maternal characteristics and stunting in children aged 0 to 23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(3). https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010... ) Prenatal car^{e^*(18,22,26})
The home	Low wealth and socioeconomic status(¹³13 Torlesse H, Cronin AA, Sebayang SK, Nandy R. Determinants of stunting in Indonesian children: evidence from a cross-sectional survey indicate a prominent role for the water, sanitation and hygiene sector in stunting reduction. BMC Public Health. 2016;16(1):669. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3339-8 https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-016-3339-... ,¹⁵15 Hadi H, Fatimatasari F, Irwanti W, Kusuma C, Alfiana RD, Asshiddiqi MIN. Exclusive breastfeeding protects young children from stunting in a low-income population: a study from eastern Indonesia. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4264. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264... ,¹⁸18 Titaley CR, Ariawan I, Hapsari D, Muasyaroh A, Dibley MJ. Determinants of the stunting of children under two years old in Indonesia: a multilevel analysis of the 2013 Indonesia Basic Health Survey. Nutrients. 2019;11(5):1106. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051106 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051106... ,²⁰20 Madinar M, Andina E, Achadi EL. Fulfilment of minimum acceptable diet (MAD), short birth length and family income level are associated with stunting in children aged 6-23 months in Central Jakarta. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(2):259-70. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045... ,²⁴24 Rohner F, Woodruff BA, Aaron GJ, Yakes EA, Lebanan MAO, Rayco-Solon P. Infant and young child feeding practices in urban Philippines and their associations with stunting, anemia, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2013;34(2 Suppl):17-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S104 https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S1... ,²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... ,³⁰30 Kpewou DE, Poirot E, Berger J, Som SV, Laillou A, Belayneh SN. Maternal mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy and linear growth among Cambodian infants during the first months of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951... -32) Inadequate sanitation and water supply(²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... -²³23 Diana A, Haszard JJ, Sari SYI, Rahmannia S, Fathonah A, Sofiah WN. Determination of modifiable risk factors for length-for-age z-scores among resource-poor Indonesian infants. PLoS One. 2021;16(2):e0247247. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247247 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.024... ,³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... ) Low caregiver education(¹⁶16 Gunardi H, Soedjatmiko S, Sekartini R, Medise BE, Darmawan AC, Armeilia R. Association between parental socio-demographic factors and declined linear growth of young children in Jakarta. Med J Indones. 2018;26(4):286-92. https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819 https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819... ,²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,²⁶26 Hinojosa AP V., Tandang NA, Domingo DGC. Relationship between maternal characteristics and stunting in children aged 0 to 23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(3). https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010... -²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... ,³⁰30 Kpewou DE, Poirot E, Berger J, Som SV, Laillou A, Belayneh SN. Maternal mid-upper arm circumference during pregnancy and linear growth among Cambodian infants during the first months of life. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12951... -34) Number of household member^{^(18,33,38)} Age of parents^{^(14,33)}
Inadequate complementary feeding	Infrequent feeding(²⁰20 Madinar M, Andina E, Achadi EL. Fulfilment of minimum acceptable diet (MAD), short birth length and family income level are associated with stunting in children aged 6-23 months in Central Jakarta. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(2):259-70. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045... ,²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... -²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... ,³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... ,³⁶36 Phu KWW, Wittayasooporn J, Kongsaktrakul C. Influence of child feeding practices and selected basic conditioning factors on stunting in children between 6 and 24 months of age in Myanmar. Makara J Health Res. 2019;23(2). https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397 https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397... ) Complementary feeding initiation^{^*(25)}
Inadequate breastfeeding	Delay initiation(²⁵25 Maravilla JC, Betts K, Adair L, Alati R. Stunting of children under two from repeated pregnancy among young mothers. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):14265. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106-7 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106... ) Non-exclusive breastfeeding(¹⁵15 Hadi H, Fatimatasari F, Irwanti W, Kusuma C, Alfiana RD, Asshiddiqi MIN. Exclusive breastfeeding protects young children from stunting in a low-income population: a study from eastern Indonesia. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4264. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264... ,²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,²⁷27 Guirindola MO, Goyena EA, Maniego ML V. Risk factors of stunting during the complementary feeding period 6-23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(1):123-40. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0112... ,²⁹29 Blake RA, Park S, Baltazar P, Ayaso EB, Monterde DBS, Acosta LP. LBW and SGA impact longitudinal growth and nutritional status of Filipino infants. PLoS One. 2016;11(7):1-13. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159461 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.015... ) Early cessation of breastfeeding(²⁵25 Maravilla JC, Betts K, Adair L, Alati R. Stunting of children under two from repeated pregnancy among young mothers. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):14265. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106-7 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-71106... -²⁶26 Hinojosa AP V., Tandang NA, Domingo DGC. Relationship between maternal characteristics and stunting in children aged 0 to 23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(3). https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010... ,³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... ,³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... )
Poor quality foods	Poor micronutrient quality(¹⁹19 Nurhayati E, Paramashanti BA, Astiti D, Aji AS. Dietary diversity, vitamin D intake and childhood stunting: a case-control study in Bantul, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr. 2020;26(2):273-87. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021... ,²⁴24 Rohner F, Woodruff BA, Aaron GJ, Yakes EA, Lebanan MAO, Rayco-Solon P. Infant and young child feeding practices in urban Philippines and their associations with stunting, anemia, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2013;34(2 Suppl):17-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S104 https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S1... ,²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... ,³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... ,³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... ) Low dietary diversity(¹⁹19 Nurhayati E, Paramashanti BA, Astiti D, Aji AS. Dietary diversity, vitamin D intake and childhood stunting: a case-control study in Bantul, Indonesia. Malays J Nutr. 2020;26(2):273-87. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0021... -²⁰20 Madinar M, Andina E, Achadi EL. Fulfilment of minimum acceptable diet (MAD), short birth length and family income level are associated with stunting in children aged 6-23 months in Central Jakarta. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(2):259-70. https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2020-0045... ,²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... ,³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... -³²32 Harvey CM, Newell M-L, Padmadas S. Maternal socioeconomic status and infant feeding practices underlying pathways to child stunting in Cambodia: structural path analysis using cross-sectional population data. BMJ Open. 2022;12(11):e055853. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055853 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055... ,³⁶36 Phu KWW, Wittayasooporn J, Kongsaktrakul C. Influence of child feeding practices and selected basic conditioning factors on stunting in children between 6 and 24 months of age in Myanmar. Makara J Health Res. 2019;23(2). https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397 https://doi.org/10.7454/msk.v23i2.10397... )
Food and water safety	Unsafe preparation of foods(²⁴24 Rohner F, Woodruff BA, Aaron GJ, Yakes EA, Lebanan MAO, Rayco-Solon P. Infant and young child feeding practices in urban Philippines and their associations with stunting, anemia, and deficiencies of iron and vitamin A. Food Nutr Bull. 2013;34(2 Suppl):17-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S104 https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265130342S1... )
Infection	Enteric infection: Diarrheal disease(¹⁷17 Sartika AN, Khoirunnisa M, Meiyetriani E, Ermayani E, Pramesthi IL, Nur Ananda AJ. Prenatal and postnatal determinants of stunting at age 0-11 months: a cross-sectional study in Indonesia. PLoS One. 2021;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254662 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.025... )
Inadequate care	Poor care practices(¹⁷17 Sartika AN, Khoirunnisa M, Meiyetriani E, Ermayani E, Pramesthi IL, Nur Ananda AJ. Prenatal and postnatal determinants of stunting at age 0-11 months: a cross-sectional study in Indonesia. PLoS One. 2021;16:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0254662 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.025... ,²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,²⁶26 Hinojosa AP V., Tandang NA, Domingo DGC. Relationship between maternal characteristics and stunting in children aged 0 to 23 months in the Philippines. Malays J Nutr. 2021;27(3). https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010 https://doi.org/10.31246/mjn-2021-0010... )
Political economy	Poverty, income, and wealth(³⁸38 Masroor N, Rahman J, TinMyo H, Khattak MAK, Aye A. Factors affecting nutritional status of children below 24 months in Pekan district, Pahang, Malaysia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Mar 15];20:197-207. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/20-2/e.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ) Employment(¹⁵15 Hadi H, Fatimatasari F, Irwanti W, Kusuma C, Alfiana RD, Asshiddiqi MIN. Exclusive breastfeeding protects young children from stunting in a low-income population: a study from eastern Indonesia. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4264. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264... -¹⁶16 Gunardi H, Soedjatmiko S, Sekartini R, Medise BE, Darmawan AC, Armeilia R. Association between parental socio-demographic factors and declined linear growth of young children in Jakarta. Med J Indones. 2018;26(4):286-92. https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819 https://doi.org/10.13181/mji.v26i4.1819... ,³²32 Harvey CM, Newell M-L, Padmadas S. Maternal socioeconomic status and infant feeding practices underlying pathways to child stunting in Cambodia: structural path analysis using cross-sectional population data. BMJ Open. 2022;12(11):e055853. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055853 https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055... -³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... ,³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... )
Health and healthcare	Qualified healthcare providers(²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... ) Health care systems and policies(²²22 Hanifah L, Wulansari R, Meiandayati R, Achadi EL. Stunting trends and associated factors among Indonesian children aged 0-23 months: evidence from Indonesian Family Life Surveys (IFLS) 2000, 2007 and 2014. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2018 [cited 2023 Mar 15];24(3):315-22. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/24-3/b.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... ,³¹31 Laillou A, Gauthier L, Wieringa F, Berger J, Chea S, Poirot E. Reducing malnutrition in Cambodia. a modeling exercise to prioritize multisectoral interventions. Matern Child Nutr. 2020;16(S2). https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770 https://doi.org//doi/10.1111/mcn.12770... )
Water, sanitation, and environment	Population density(³³33 Beal T, Le DT, Trinh TH, Burra DD, Huynh T, Duong TT. Child stunting is associated with child, maternal, and environmental factors in Vietnam. Matern Child Nutr. 2019;15(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826 https://doi.org/10.1111/mcn.12826... ,³⁵35 Mya KS, Kyaw AT, Tun T. Feeding practices and nutritional status of children age 6-23 months in Myanmar: a secondary analysis of the 2015-16 demographic and health survey. PLoS One. 2019;14(1):e0209044. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209044 https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.020... ,³⁸38 Masroor N, Rahman J, TinMyo H, Khattak MAK, Aye A. Factors affecting nutritional status of children below 24 months in Pekan district, Pahang, Malaysia. Malays J Nutr [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2023 Mar 15];20:197-207. Available from: https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/20-2/e.pdf https://nutriweb.org.my/mjn/publication/... )
Society and culture	Child caregiver: mother(¹⁵15 Hadi H, Fatimatasari F, Irwanti W, Kusuma C, Alfiana RD, Asshiddiqi MIN. Exclusive breastfeeding protects young children from stunting in a low-income population: a study from eastern Indonesia. Nutrients. 2021;13(12):4264. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264 https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13124264... ) Ethnic^{^*(33,38)} Women’s status(²⁸28 Ulep VGT, Uy J, Casas LD. What explains the large disparity in child stunting in the Philippines? a decomposition analysis. Public Health Nutr. 2022;25(11):2995-3007. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416X https://doi.org/10.1017/S136898002100416... )

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[1] Corresponding author: Via Eliadora Togatorop, E-mail: viaeldho.dho@gmail.com